Обычаи и традиции англо-говорящих стран

Обычаи и традиции англо-говорящих стран

born here in1564, and here he died in 1616. Cambridge and Oxford

Universities are famous centers of learning.

Stonehenge is a prehistoric monument, presumably build by Druids,

members of an order of priests in ancient Britain. Tintagel Castle is King

Arthur’s reputed birthplace. Canterbury is the seat of the Archbishop o

Canterbury, head of the Church of England.

The British Museum is the largest and riches museum in the world. It

was founded in 1753 and contains one of the world’s richest collections of

antiquities. The Egyptian Galleries contain human and animal mummies. Some

parts of Athens’ Parthenon are in the Greek section.

Madam Tussaud’s Museum is an exhibition of hundreds of life-size wax

models of famous people of yesterday and today. The collection was started

by Madam Tussaud, a French modeler in wax, in the 18 century. Here you can

meet Marilyn Monroe, Elton John, Picasso, the Royal family, the Beatles and

many others: writers, movie stars, singers, politicians, sportsmen, etc.

Sports in Great Britain

British people are very fond of sports. Sport is a part of their normal

life. The two most popular games are football and cricket.

Football, also called soccer, is the most popular sport in the United

Kingdom. England, Wales, Scotland and Northern Ireland have their own

Football Leagues and national teams. Games are played on Saturday

afternoons from August to April. In addition to the FL games there is a

competition called the Football Associations Cup. The Cup Final is played

at Wembley Stadium(London) in May.

Cricket is considered to be the English National game. Its rules are

very complicated. Two teams of eleven men each play it, the player at a

time tries to hit ball with a bat.

Golf is the Scottish national game. It originated in the XV century and

the most famous golf course in the world, known as a Royal and Ancient

Club, is at St. Andrew’s.

Lawn tennis was first played in Britain in the late 19th century. The

most famous British championship is Wimbledon, played annually during the

last week of June and the fist week of July.

Those are the most popular kinds of sport in the UK. But there are many

other sports such as rugby, golf, swimming, horse-racing and the

traditional fox-hunting.

Scotland

Scotland is a country in the north of Great Britain. It is a part of

the United Kingdom. Scotland is divided into three natural regions: the

Southern Uplands, the Central Lowlands and the highlands and islands. A lot

of places in Scotland are a natural paradise, still untouched by man.

The capital of Scotland is Edinburgh, well known for its castle.

Glasgow is the industrial capital of Scotland. It us the third largest city

in Great Britain. The typical products of Scotland are timber, whisky,

salmon. Golf is the Scottish natural sport it seems to have originated in

this country.

Scottish Traditions

The thistle is the national emblem of Scotland. This is how, according

to a curious legend, this plant came to be chosen as a badge, in preference

to any other. Many years ago the Vikings once landed somewhere on the east

coast of Scotland. The Scots assembled with their arms and took their

stations behind the River Tay. As they arrived late in the day, weary and

tired after a long march, they pitched their camp and rested, not expecting

the enemy before the next day. The Vikings, however, were near: noticing

that no guards were protecting the camp, they crossed the Tay, intending to

take the Scots by surprise. For this purpose they took off their shoes so

as to make the least possible noise. But one of them stepped on a thistle.

The sudden and sharp pain he felt caused him to shriek. The alarm was given

in the Scots' camp. The Vikings were put to fight, and as an

acknowledgement for the timely and unexpected help from the thistle, the

Scots took it as their national emblem.

The Scottish national costume (Highland dress) includes a kilt worn by

men. For day wear, the kilt is worn with a tweed jacket, plain long socks,

a beret and a leather sporran, that is, a pouch hanging from a narrow belt

round the hips. The Scottish beret - tam-o'-shanter - is a woollen cap

without a brim but with a pompon or a feather on top, traditionally worn

pulled down at one side. It got its name after Tam o' Shanter, the hero of

Burns's poem of that name.

The Clan

The Gaelic word "clan" means "children", and the central idea of a clan

is kinship. Nowadays it refers, as a rule, only to Highland families, in

Scotland. A clan is a family, and theoretically the chief is the father of

it, although not every clansman can be a direct descendant of the founder.

Many people in Scotland today will be surprised to learn that those who

founded the present clans were not themselves always Highlanders, but

included Normans (Gordon, Eraser), Bretons (Stuart), Flemings (Murrey,

Sutherland). Irish (MacNeil), and Norsemen (MacLeod), Mac meaning "son of".

Concerning that early period of their settlement, which was between the

eleventh and fourteenth centuries, we must not be dogmatic on the subject

of nationality; the important point is that all these were "incomers" to

the Highlands.

When the incomers acquired their land they virtually took over a good

many people who were living on it, and who, perhaps, were already formed

into a family or clan unit. Gradually the old clan came to acknowledge the

protection of their new leader, and at last built up a nominal kinship with

him. In course of time intermarriage made it difficult to determine how

far this kinship was nominal and how far real.

Under the patriarchal system of clanship, which reached its peak in the

sixteenth century, order of precedence was strictly observed. First, after

the chief himself, came members of his immediate family, his younger sons

and grandsons, and then the clansmen. All of them, whether connected by

blood or not, owned a common heritage of loyalty as clansmen. In return for

the help and support of his clansmen, the chief was their leader in war and

their arbiter in peace. Even in the early days the king was, in theory at

least, the "chief of chiefs", and as the royal power spread through the

Highlands the chiefs were made responsible for the good conduct of their

clansmen. Among the most famous clans were: Campbell, Fraser, Munro,

Cameron, Stewart, Murray, MacDonald, Maclean and Mackenzie.

The great period of the clans declined by the beginning of the

eighteenth century and the failure of the Jacobite Risings in 1715 and 1745

completed the destruction. But today clan societies flourish in Scotland

and, perhaps more ' bravely, elsewhere in the world. These societies are

acquiring land and property in their respective clan countries, financing

magazines, establishing museums to preserve the relics, founding

educational trusts, and - perhaps above all - keeping alive the family

spirit.

The Tartan

Tartan is and has for centuries been the distinguishing mark of the

Highlander. It has a long history. Evidence can be brought to show that as

long as the thirteenth century, and probably earlier, Highlanders wore

brightly coloured striped or checked tartan plaids, which they called

"breacan". There is some controversy about clan tartans as such.

Traditionalists state the Highlanders wore tartan as a badge so that they

could recognize each other and distinguish friend from foe in battle. Like

many theories, this looks well on paper, but in practice it seems to break

down. Even though the old tartans were simpler than the modern ones, they

could not easily be recognized at a distance.

On the other hand, various descriptions can be quoted to show that, in

the Highlands, the patterns of the tartans were considered important. A

district tartan is a very natural development in a country divided into

small communities. By the sixteenth century the particular patterns of

tartan worn in a district were connected with the predominant local clan.

But the study of the portraits shows that there was no uniformity of tartan

even in the early eighteenth century. Members of the same family are found

wearing very different tartan and, what is more surprising, many of the men

are seen to wear the kilt of one tartan and a Jacket of another. The

history of development of tartan was sharply broken in 1747, when wearing

of Highland dress was forbidden by law after the failure of 1745.

In the early years of the nineteenth century efforts were made to

collect authentic patterns of each clan tartan, but this does not seem to

have been very successful. The fashion for tartan was fostered by the

amazing spectacle of a kilted King George IV at holyrood in 1822, and

demands for clan tartan poured into the manufactures. The wave of

enthusiasm for tartan outstripped the traditional knowledge of the

Highlanders, and it was at this time and in response to popular demand that

a great many of familiar present-day tartans became associated with their

respective clans. Some of the patterns had previously been identified by

numbers only, while some were invented on the spot, as variations of the

old traditional patterns.

The term "Highland dress'' has not always meant the same thing. In the

seventeenth century the ki1t was not worn. Clansmen wrapped themselves in a

generous length of tartan cloth some sixteen feet wide. The upper portion

covered the wearer's shoulders, and it was belted at the waist, the lower

portion hanging in rough folds to the knees. In the eighteenth century,

this belted plaid was superseded by the kilt. Modern Highland dress

consists of a day-time kilt of heavy material, sometimes in a darker

tartan, worn with a tweed jacket, while for the evening finer material,

possibly in a brighter "dress" tartan, can be matched with a variety of

accessories.

Food and Drink

What sort of food has Scotland to offer the stranger? Scotland produces

a number of dishes: Scots collops - a savoury dish popularly known as

"mince", small mutton pies which must be served piping hot and the immortal

haggis. And no country has a greater variety of puddings and pies, creams,

jellies, and trifles.

The excellence of Scottish soups has been attributed to the early and

long connection between Scotland and France, but there are some genuine

soups, such as Barley Broth, Powsowdie or Sheep’s Head Broth. Hotch Potch

or Harvest Broth. Baud Bree (Hare Soup) is flavoured with toasted oatmeal

and Cullen Skink is made with a smoked haddock.

Plenty of ingenuity is shown, too, in the preparation of both oatmeal

and milk. Porridge, properly made with home-milled meal and fresh spring

water, and served with thin cream or rick milk, is food for the gods.

Lastly there is the national oatcake, which is described as “a masterpiece”

by the French gastronomes.

As a nation the Scots are definitely better bakers than cooks. To beat

the best Edinburgh bakers one must go, it is said, all the way to Vienna.

There is an endless variety of bannocks and scones: soda scones, made with

buttermilk, girdle scones, potato scones, without which no Glasgow Sunday

breakfast is complete. Also the pancakes, the crumpets, the shortbread that

melts in the mouth, buns of every size and shape! They are on offer in

every bakery.

The Scottish housewife likes to buy her meat fresh and sees that she

gets it. She likes the meat off the bone and rolled, as in France, and the

Scottish butcher is an artist at his trade. Most of the cuts are different

from England and have different names. Sirloin, one would understand, but

what is Nine Holes? Steak is steak in any language, but what is Pope's

eye?

And then the puddings! The black puddings, the white puddings, the

mealy puddings. And king of puddings, the haggis! I once asked a Scot:

"What's in a haggis?" His answer was: "I know. But I know no reason why you

should. All you need to know is that it should be served with mashed

potatoes and bashed neeps (turnips), and you must drink whisky with it. You

will discover that the oatmeal in the haggis absorbs the whisky, and so you

can drink more of it. What else do you need to know?" "A recipe of

haggis", was my answer. "Hell, well, here you are", said my friend: B

ounces of sheep's liver, 4 ounces of beef suet (fat), salt and pepper, 2

onions, 1 cup of oatmeal. Boil the liver and onions in water for 40

minutes. Drain, and keep the liquid. Mince the liver finely, and chop the

onions with the suet. Lightly toast the oatmeal. Combine all the

ingredients, and moisten the mixture with the liquid in which the liver and

onions were boiled. Turn into a sheep's stomach, cover with grease-proof

paper and steam for 2 hours.

Although the Scots are not a nation of beer-drinkers in the sense that

the English are, some of the best beers in the world are brewed in the

Lowlands of Scotland. But however good Scots beer and ale are, it is

universally known that the glory of the country is whisky. Scotch whisky

was a by-product of traditional Scottish thrift. Frugal Scots farmers,

rather than waste their surplus barley, mashed, fermented and distilled it,

producing a drink at first called uisge beatha, Gaelic for "water of life",

and now simply called whisky. No one knows when the Scots learnt the art of

distilling, though it may have been before they arrived from Ireland in the

fifth century AD, for in Irish legend St Patrick taught the art. The first

mention in Scottish records of a spirit distilled from grain does not occur

before 1494.

Today there are two kinds of Scotch whisky - the original malt whisky,

made by the centuries-old pot-still process from barley that has been

"mailed" or soaked and left to germinate; and grain whisky, made from maize

as well as matted and unmalted barley. Most of the well-known brands of

Scotch whisky are blends of many different grain and malt whiskies. The

technique of blending was pioneered in Edinburgh in the 1860s, and a taste

for the new, milder blended whiskies quickly spread to England and then to

the rest of the world.

Barley is the raw material of the malt whisky distiller. The first

process in making whisky is mailing - turning barley into malt. Mailing

begins when the distiller takes delivery of the barley, usually in

September or October, soon after it has been harvested. The barley is in

grain form, and must be ripe and dry, otherwise it may turn mouldy and make

properly controlled mailing impossible. The barley is cleaned, weighed and

soaked for two or three days in tanks of water. Then it is spread on the

malting floor, where it germinates for 8-12 days, secreting an enzyme which

makes the starch in barley soluble and prepares it turning into sugar. The

barley is regularly turned over to control its temperature and rate of

germination. The warm, damp, sweet-smelling barley is passed to the kiln

for drying, which stops germination. It is spread on a base of perforated

iron and dried in the heat of a peat fire. Distillery kilns have

distinctive pagoda-shaped heads. An open ventilator at the top draws hot

air from the peat fire through the barley. This gives it a smoky flavour,

which is passed on to the whisky. The barley has now become malt - dry,

crisp, peat-flavored, different from the original barley in all but

appearance. It is ready for the next stage in the process - mashing. It is

stored in bins and then it is weighed to ensure that the right amount of

malt is passed to the mill below, where it is ground. The ground malt,

called grist, is carried up to the grist hopper and fed in measured

quantities into the mash tun. There the grist is mixed with hot water and

left to infuse. This extracts the sugar content from the malt. The sugary

water, called wort, is then drawn off through the bottom of the mash tun.

This process is repeated three times, and each time the water is at a

different temperature.

For centuries, Scotch whisky has been made from mailed barley mixed

with yeast and water, then heated in pear-shaped containers called pot

stills. The early Highland farmers who distilled their own whisky heated

their pot stills in huge copper kettles over a peat fire. Smoke from the

peat added to the whisky's flavour. Big modern distillers use basically the

same technique. The vapor that rises in the still is condensed by cooling

to make whisky. The shape of the still affects the vapor and so helps to

give the whisky its taste. The most important single influence on the taste

of Scotch whisky is probably the Scottish water. This is why distilleries

are situated in narrow glens or in remote country near a tumbling stream.

The whisky comes colorless and fiery from the spirit receiver. In the

spirit vat it is diluted to about 110 degrees proof before being run into

oak casks to mature. Today, 100 degrees proof spirit by British standards

is spirit with 37.1 per cent of alcohol by volume, and 42.9 per cent of

water.

Scotch whisky cannot legally be sold for consumption until it has

matured in casks for at least three years. The time a whisky takes to

mature depends on the size of the casks used, the strength at which the

spirit is stored and the temperature and humidity of the warehouse. A good

malt whisky may have been left in the cask for 15 years, or even longer.

Air enters the oak casks and evaporation takes place. Eventually, the

whisky loses its coarseness and becomes smooth and mellow.

There are more than 100 distilleries in Scotland and the whisky made in

each has its own distinctive character. Some distilleries bottle part of

their spirit and sell it as a single whisky; but most whiskies go to a

blender. As many as 40 different single whiskies may be blended to make up

the whisky that is eventually sold. So specifically associated with

Scotland has whisky he-come that the mere adjective SCOTCH requires no

noun to be supplied in order that people should know what is meant.

Burns Night (25 January)

The anniversary of the poet's birth, is celebrated in every corner of

Scotland, and indeed wherever a handful of Scots is to be found. There are

hundreds of Burns Clubs scattered throughout the world, and they all

endeavour to hold Burns Night celebrations to mark the birth of Scotland's

greatest poet. The first club was founded at Greenock in 1802. The

traditional menu at the suppers is cock-a-leekie soup (chicken broth),

boiled salt herring, haggis with bashed neeps (turnips), and champit

tatties (mashed potatoes) and dessert. The arrival of the haggis is

usually heralded by the music of bagpipes. The haggis is carried into the

dining room behind a piper wearing traditional dress. He then reads a poem

written especially for the haggis! "The Immortal Memory" is toasted, and

the company stand in silent remembrance. Then fellows dancing, pipe music,

and selections from Burns's lyrics, the celebration concluding with the

poet's famous Auld tang Syne.

Loch Ness and the Monster

Whatever it is that stirs in Loch Ness, it is no newcomer. An

inscription on a fourteenth-century map of the loch tells vaguely but

chillingly of "waves without wind, fish without fins, islands that float".

"Monster" sightings are not limited to Loch Ness: Lochs Awe, Rannoch,

Lomond and Morar have all been said to contain specimens. The Loch Ness

Monster owes its great fame to the opening of a main road along the north

shore of the loch in 1933. Since then, distant views of "four shining black

humps", "brownish-gray humps" have kept visitors flocking to the loch.

People who have seen the phenomenon more closely say that it is "slug-like"

or "eel-like", with a head resembling a seal's or a gigantic snail's, while

the long neck is embellished with a horse's mane. Its length has been

estimated at anything between 8 and 23 metres, and its skin texture la

"warty" and "slimy". Close observers, too, particularly Hr George Spicer

and his wife who saw it jerking across a lochside road in 1933, have

declared it "fearful".

It is not surprising that such waters, cupped in savage hills, should

produce legends. Loch Ness is part of the Great Glen, a geological fault

that slashes across Scotland like a sword-cut. The loch itself is 24 miles

long, about a mile broad and has an average depth of 400 feet. Loch Ness

has one direct outlet to the sea, the shallow River Ness, and it is fed by

eight rivers and innumerable streams, each of which pours the peaty soil of

the hills into the loch. Consequently, the water is dark. Divers working

with powerful arc lamps 15 metres below the surface have been unable to see

for more than 3 metres around them.

Over the past 40 years, sightings have been claimed by more than 1000

people. Most of the sightings were in bright sunlight conditions of flat

calm, and several of the witnesses were trained observers - soldiers,

doctors, seamen. Though many of the sightings were from a distance,

witnesses have been convinced they were looking at a large animal, most of

whose body was hidden beneath the water.

If it exists, it is most unlikely that the Loch Ness monster is a

single animal. A prehistoric creature, living alone in Loch Ness, cut off

from others of its kind, would have to be millions of years old. For the

species to survive there must be quite a large colony. The colony theory

is also supported by nearly simultaneous sightings in different parts of

the loch. According to naturalists, the chances of the creature being a

reptile are remote. Though Loch Ness never freezes, its temperature never

rises above 6°C and this would be too cold for any known species. Also,

reptiles breathe air, and would have to surface more frequently than the

monster appears to. Though most zoologists deny the possibility that a

large and unknown animal might be living in Loch Ness, it is remarkable

that the mystery continues; and it is perhaps more exciting than any final

scientific solution.

Scottish Weddings

Everybody knows about Gretna Green, the famous Scottish village just

beyond the border. In the old days runaway couples escaped from England to

Gretna Green to get married. The practice started in the year 1774. In that

year a bill was passed in England forbidding marriages of person under

eighteen without their parents’ consent. In Scotland the legal age limit

was sixteen - and still is for that matter. What is more, until the year

1856 the young couple could be married at once at any place in Scotland,

without having to stay there for some time.

You may ask why all those young people chose Gretna Green for their

wedding. After all, there are many romantic places in Scotland. The answer

is simple. Gretna Green was the nearest village across the Scottish border,

only ten miles of Carlisle, on the main highway. To get there took the

least time and the least money.

The blacksmith at Gretna Green was always ready to perform the marriage

ceremony at a small fee. The formalities were very simple. All that was

needed was a declaration made by the young couple in the presence of two

witnesses. Visitors of Gretna Green can still see the old blacksmith’s

shop and the famous marriage room in it.

The old tradition is still remembered. Many young couples who cannot

get married in England because they are under age still think it romantic

to go to Gretna Green. But today they must have enough money to stay there

for three weeks.

Highland Games

Perhaps the most distinctive event at a Highland Gathering is “Tossing

the Caber” - or, as the sixteenth-century writer called it, “throwing the

bar”. The caber is the trunk - of a fir tree 20 feet long and ten inches

(25 cm) thick at the bigger end. Its weight is about 100 kilos and it needs

two or three men to lift it upright with the thick end at the top. The

competitor then lakes hold of it and rests it against his shoulder. He

takes two or three steps and then throws it so that it turns a complete

somersault. The straightest throw, that is nearest to 12 o’clock in

direction, gets the most points. If none of the competitors is able to toss

the caber, a bit is sawn off the end, and then, if necessary, another bit,

until at last one competitor succeeds.

Another feat of strength is throwing the hammer. This has a long handle

and weighs ten kilos. The competitor is not allowed to run, he stands still

and sweeps it round and round his head several times.

For all events, except races, the kilt must be worn. For highland

dances, of which there are many varieties, the competitors wear full

highland dress. This includes a smart jacket worn with coloured buttons and

a “sporran” or purse made of fur, which hangs at the waist. The mast

difficult and intricate of the dances is the sword-dance, performed over a

pair of crossed swords which must not be touched by the dancer’s feet.

Wales

Wales is the country in the west of Great Britain. It is mainly a

mountainous land with a chiefly agricultural economy and an industrial and

coal-mining area in the south. The landscape is beautiful. Many English

people move to Wales when they retire.

Cardiff, a large city in the south, was chosen as the capital of Wales

in 1955, mainly because of its size. Since 1536, Wales has been governed by

England and the heir to the throne of England has the title of Prince of

Wales, but Welsh people have strong sense of identity. There is a Welsh

National party which wants independence from the United Kingdom and the

Welsh language is still used in certain parts of the country.

Welsh is an ancient Celtic language, similar to Breton, spoken in

Brittany, France. In the 60’s Welsh was given equal status with English as

an official language and is used in the law courts. It is taught in school

and some TV program is broadcast in Welsh. However, only about 20% of the

population speaks Welsh.

St. David’s Day (1st March)

Dewi (“David” in English), was the son of a Welsh chieftain. He was

brought up as a Christian and went abroad to learn more about the life of a

monk. Then he returned to Wales and founded many monasteries which became

centers of religion and learning in the Welsh countryside. The monks lived

a simple life of player, growing their own herbs and vegetables and

offering generous hospitality to anyone in need. Because David’s holiness

and his inspiring teaching, he was made a bishop. The center of his

bishopric was in the settlement we now know as St. David’s on the Western

tip of the country of Dyfed.

David is thought to have died on 1st march, AD 589, and his shrine at

St. David’s was a place of pilgrimage in the Middle Ages. Later, when

people of North and South Wales became one nation, he was chosen as the

patron saint of Wales.

A legend tells how David suggested that his people should wear a leek

in their bonnets during battles so that they could be easily recognized;

Welsh Guards are still distinguished by a green and white plume in their

black bearskins. At Windsor, on the Sunday nearest St. David’s day, it is

now a tradition that every member of the Brigade of Welsh Guards is given a

leek by a member of the Royal Family. However, as St. David’ Day is

celebrated at the beginning of Spring when daffodils, are blooming, this

flower has become a second, more graceful emblem of Wales. David’s own

emblem is a dove.

It is said that David had a sweet singing voice. He encouraged his

monks to sing as well as possible for the glory of God, and perhaps this

was the beginning of the Welsh tradition of fine made-voice choirs.

Many churches are dedicated to David in southwest Wales, and if you are

traveling there, you might visit the cathedral at St. David’s. Other places

too are called after the saint, and you may visit Llandewi or Capel Dewi or

Ffynor Dewi

The Welsh "national" costume

Seen on the dolls and postcards is largely a myth created for tourism.

Certainly, the seventeenth-century country women wore long coloured skirts,

a white apron and a tall black hat, but so did English women at that time.

In the nineteenth century, the idea of a national costume was born and this

pleased both tourists and locals, although there is no evidence at all of a

long-lost costume.

The Welsh Eisteddfodau

No country in the world has a greater love of music and poetry than the

people of Wales. Today, Eisteddfodau are held at scores of places

throughout Wales, particularly from May to early November. The habit of

holding similar events dates back to early history, and there are records

of competitions for Welsh poets and musicians in the twelfth century. The

Eisteddfod sprang from the National Assembly of Bards. It was held

occasionally up to 1B19, but since then has become an annual event for the

encouragement of Welsh literature and music and the preservation of the

Welsh language and ancient national customs.

The Royal National Eisteddfod of Wales is held annually early in

August, its actual venue varying from year to year. It attracts Welsh

people from all over the world. The programme Includes male and mixed

choirs, brass-band concerts, many children's events, drama, arts and crafts

and, of course, the ceremony of the Crowning of the Bard.

Next in importance is the great Llangollen International Music

Eisteddfod. held early in July and attended by competitors from many

countries, all wearing their picturesque and often colourful national

costumes. It is an event probably without parallel anywhere in the world.

There are at least twenty-five other major Eisteddfodau from May to

November. In addition to the Eisteddfodau, about thirty major Welsh Singing

festivals are held throughout Wales during the same period of time.

Lovespoons

Lovespoons were given by suitors to their sweethearts in Wales from the

seventeenth to the early nineteenth century. The custom of giving

lovespoons died out in the nineteenth century but they continued to be

carved especially in some country districts. Making lovespoons became

something of an art form and woodwork competitions and Eisteddfoday often

had examples of the genre.

In recent years, interest in lovespoons has reawakened and many people

seek them out as desirable keepsakes. Visitors to Wales, particularly from

overseas, wanting something uniquely Welsh to remind them of their visit

often choose a lovespoon. There is also a growing tendency for Welsh people

themselves to give lovespoons as gifts to commemorate special occasions — a

new baby, a birthday, an impending marriage, a retirement or to celebrate a

success of some kind. Lovespoons also make excellent Christmas presents.

Today, when most people have neither the tine nor the inclination to carve

their own lovespoons, the accepted practice is to buy a ready-made example

of the craft or to commission one of the woodcarver specialists to make

one.

Since pre-history, beautiful, hand-carved objects have had ceremonial,

romantic and religious significance: long incense and cosmetic spoons, for

example, have survived from Egyptian times. In the Middle Ages, a pair of

knives in a sheath was considered a worthy gift and it was common for a

bridegroom to present his bride with one: such sets were known as "wedding

knives".

The history of kitchen utensils and the spoon belongs to Western

culture. The history of the lovespoon belongs to Welsh romantic folklore.

From the mid-seventeenth century, lovespoons were carved from wood in

Wales and there is one dated 1677 in the collection at the Welsh Folk

Museum in Cardiff. It is amazing that it has survived because wooden

objects are not particularly durable.

From the seventeenth century, the custom grew for a young man to give a

spoon to the lady who took his fancy. Thus, particularly attractive young

ladies might be given a number of spoons from aspiring suitors. It may be

that modern word, "spooning" indicating a closer development of a

relationship, is derived from this practice of giving a love token.

Early lovespoons were carved from sycamore which was readily available

in the low-lying country districts of Wales. The main tool used was a

pocket knife. Those who made such spoons were amateurs and it was a way of

passing the time on long winter evenings. Imagine a young man busily

shaping a spoon in a small room lit only by candlelight or the glow of a

fire.

Numerous examples of lovespoons have been found throughout Wales but

the giving and receiving of a spoon did not develop into "a ritual of

betrothal". Indeed, there is strong evidence to suggest that giving a

lovespoon expressed a desire for a relationship and was not an affirmation

that a relationship had already begun.

Some young men did not have the time or the skill to carve their own

spoons and professional lovespoon carters emerged. It was again, a question

of demand and supply. Spoons were bartered for or purchased from these

skilled craftsmen and a tradition of spoons made by the same wood worker

grew in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. It was no wonder then,

that the spoon became more decorative and elaborate.

A number of design factors should be mentioned in relation to spoon

carving including size, weight, color and the nature of the completed

artifact. As far as size is concerned, the earliest spoons were little

bigger than the modern teaspoon, their use was limited, and larger spoons

soon came to be carved. This meant that the handles, in particular, could

be more and more elaborate. As they became more decorative, the spoons were

displayed by hanging them on the wall in the living room or parlour. The

weight and type of wood used for such a spoon depended on the setting in

which it was to be displayed. Softwoods were often preferred and the colour

selected so that it would look good against a wall.

A great deal of imagination was used in the creation of lovespoons.

This elaboration was gradual. Two or even three bowls were carved instead

of one to make it more interesting and attractive. Eventually, the bowl

became less important and attention turned first to the handle and then to

embellishments or additions to the handle. Sometimes the handle was

enlarged or made rectangular in shape. At other times, filigree was added.

The handle was pierced, cutting designs in fretwork or carving in relief

were devices to add interest and meaning to the spoon. In this way,

symbols were incorporated: hearts, locks, keys, shields, anchors and wheels

were favoured themes.

A heart or a series of hearts was the most popular expression of love

used on spoons. These might be single or entwined to suggest that the boy

and his girl would soon feel the same way about each other. As the spoons

became more decorative, their utilitarian use ceased altogether and they

were used more for display. The heart was also an attractive and

convenient device for suspending the spoon on a wall. Indeed, most spoons

have a device for hanging them up, indicating that they were decorative

rather than functional.

Anchors in particular were popular: the suitor has found a berth where

he wished to stay. Many lovespoons were the work of seafarers who whiled

away the tedium of a voyage by whittling. Besides anchors, ropes and cable

designs often appear, as do vessels, steering wheels and various other

nautical emblems.

Locks (keeping love or a lover safe), keys (unlocking love), miniature

cottages and houses are recurrent themes with associations of lovers making

a life together. The key may have a triple significance for it may indicate

unlocking the door to the heart, it may indicate maturity (reaching 21 and

the key to the door theme) or it may mean "let's live in marriage

together".

Chain links look very difficult to carve and are another development of

the whittler's art showing the woodworker's skill. Suggestions are that the

links symbolically "link" the sweethearts together in love and

possibly matrimony.

It must be stressed that many assumptions have been made about the

meanings of the motifs which appear on lovespoons. Imagery is always

difficult to explain and certain motifs may have had more personal

significance for the donor than can be appreciated by the casual observer.

Spoons were not mass-produced but made by one individual for another and

many relied on personal nuances other than symbols to convey meaning.

Some spoons are dated. If the couple eventually marry, they then become

a keepsake of the suitor's original interest. Other spoons are personalized

either by initials or by an emblem of the occupation or the interests of

the donor or donor. Often a carver wishes to incorporate a date, a

monogram, a motto, a name or a quotation into a carving. If he wants to

keep it a secret, he may work the date or name into the design.

Nationalistic emblems such as a daffodil, a leek, the word Cymru or

even a dragon are sometimes used, but they are usually to be found on

modern spoons. Some spoons are intended to be in the nature of Valentines

and to be anonymous. It is difficult to understand, though, that someone

who had spent many hours creating such a gift would not want his work to be

appreciated. Others are decorated with dual initials, those of the suitor

and his lady or with a single initial when we are left to guess whether

this represents the donor or the donor. But we must try not to read too

much into the minds of the carvers of earlier days. Whatever we think, we

cannot help being amazed by the consummate skill of these lovespoon

craftsmen.

The Welsh National Game

Rugby is a form of football. It is named after Rugby School in

Warwickshire where it was developed, though the exact date (1823 or later)

is in dispute.

Rugby is the national game of Welsh team was thought to be the best of

the world. The rules of the game are rather complicated but mainly involve

the carrying of an egg-shaped ball over your opponents’ line and pressing

it firmly on the ground to score a try. A team consists of fifteen players,

eight of whom are usually much bigger and heavier than the rest. Their job

is to win the ball so that the three-quarters can run forward over the

line, trying to avoid the tackles of the opposing team. Often the heavier

forwards can be seen pushing together in a scrum, trying to kick the ball

backwards. Although the game seems to be similar to American football, the

players are not allowed to throw the ball forward. Other point can be won

by kicking the ball between the special “H” – shaped goal – posts.

When the Welsh side are playing at home at Cardiff Arms Park their

supporters often try to encourage them to play better by singing the Welsh

National anthem, “Land of My Fathers”. The sound of thousands of Welsh

voices singing this famous song usually helps the Welsh side to score

another try to win the game. Naturally they are especially pleased when

this is against the English!

Northern Ireland

Northern Ireland, also known as Ulster, is still a part of the United

Kingdom. It is made up of six countries: Antrim, Armagh, Down, Fermanagh,

Londonderry, Tyrone. One third of the population lives in and around the

capital, Belfast. Belfast is also the mast important port and commercial

and industrial centre. Some parts of the territory, those that are not

close to capital, have remained mainly rural.

The Irish population is divided into two groups: the Protestants and

the Catholics. The Protestants are of British origin. They are descendants

of British settlers who came to Ireland in XVth and XVIIth centuries,

during and after the Reformation. The Catholics are mostly natives of

Ireland.

The Protestants were the majority and dominated the Catholics with

strong discrimination. In1968 the Catholics began the movement for equal

civil rights.

The fightings between the two groups of the population continue to this

day.

Canada

Canada is the second largest country in the world. Only Russia has a

greater land area. Canada is situated in North America. Canada is slightly

larger than United States, but has only about a tenth as many people. About

28 million people live in Canada. About 80% of the population live within

320 km of the southern border. Much of the rest of Canada is uninhabited or

thinly populated because of severe natural conditions.

Canada is a federation of 10 provinces and 2 territories. Canada is an

independent nation. But according to the Constitution Act of 1982 British

Monarch, Queen Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom is recognized as Queen of

Canada. This symbolizes the country’s strong ties to Britain. Canada was

ruled by Britain completely until 1867, when Canada gained control of its

domestic affairs. Britain governed Canada’s foreign affairs until1931, when

Canada gained all independence.

Canada’s people are varied. About 57% of all Canadians have some

English ancestry and about 32% have some French ancestry. Both English and

French are official languages of the country. French Canadians, most of

whom live in the provinces of Quebec, have kept the language and customs of

their ancestors. Other large ethnic group are German, Irish and Scottish

people. Native people-American Indians and Eskimos-make up about 2% of the

country’s population. 77% of Canada’s people live in cities or towns.

Toronto and Montreal are the largest urban areas. Ottawa is the capital of

the country.

Today, maintaining a sense of community is one of major problems in

Canada because of different among the provinces and territories. Many

Canadians in western and eastern parts of the country feel that the federal

government does not pay enough attention to their problems. 80% of Quebec’s

population are French Canadians. Many of them believe that their province

should receive a special recognition in the Canadian constitution.

History of Canada

Canada’s history is an exciting story of development of a vast

wilderness into a great nation. Most experts believe that the first people

who lived on this land came from Asia about 15000 years ago. They came over

a land bridge that once connected Asia and North America. Their descendants

are known today as Indians. The ancestors of the Eskimos came to Alaska

after them probably about 5000 years ago.

In 1497, John Cabot, an Italian navigator in the service of England,

found rich fishing grounds off Canada’s south-east coast. His discovery led

to the European exploration of Canada. France set up a colony in Eastern

Canada in the early 1600’s. Great Britain gained control of the country in

1763, and thousands of Britain emigrants came in Canada. In 1867, the

French and English-speaking Canadians helped to create a united colony

called the Dominion of Canada. Two groups worked together to settle the

country and to develop its great mineral deposits and other natural

resources.

Canada gained its independence from Britain in 1931. During the middle

of 20th century, hard-working Canadians turned their country into an

economic giant. Today Canada is a leading producer of wheat, oats, barley.

Canada also ranks among the world’s top manufacturing countries, and it is

a major producer of electronic power.

Throughout its history, Canada has often been troubled by lack of unity

among its people. French Canadians, most of them live in the province

Quebec, have struggled to preserve their own culture. They have long been

angered by Canadian policies based on British traditions. Many of them

support a movement to make Quebec a separate nation. People in Canada’s

nine other provinces also frequently local needs over national interests.

Australia

Australia is the only country in the world that also a continent. It is

sixth large country and the smallest continent. Australia lies between the

South Pacific Ocean and the Indian Ocean. It is situated about 11000 km

southwest of North America and about 3200 km southeast of mainland Asia.

The name of the country comes from Latin word “australis” which mean

southern. The country’s official name is Commonwealth of Australia.

The Commonwealth of Australia is a federation of states. Australia has

six states-new South Wales, Queensland, South Australia, Tasmania, Victoria

and Western Australia. Each state has its government. Australia has two

territories-the Australian Capital Territory and the Northern Territory.

The capital of the country is Canberra.

Australia is a constitutional monarchy like Great Britain. The nation

is administered under written constitution. The British monarch, Queen

Elizabeth II, is also queen of Australia and country’s head of state. But

the queen has little power in the Australian government. She serves mainly

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